Insulin Secretion Defect in Children and Adolescents with Obesity: Clinical and Molecular Genetic Characterization.

Introduction: Childhood obesity is increasing worldwide and presents as a global health issue due to multiple metabolic comorbidities. About 1% of adolescents with obesity develop type 2 diabetes (T2D); however, little is known about the genetic and pathophysiological background at young age. The objective of this study was to assess the prevalence of impaired glucose regulation (IGR) in a large cohort of children and adolescents with obesity and to characterize insulin sensitivity and insulin secretion. We also wanted to investigate adolescents with insulin secretion disorder more closely and analyze possible candidate genes of diabetes in a subcohort. Methods: We included children and adolescents with obesity who completed an oral glucose tolerance test (OGTT, glucose + insulin) in the outpatient clinic. We calculated Matsuda index, the area under the curve (AUC (Ins/Glu)), and an oral disposition index (ISSI-2) to estimate insulin resistance and beta-cell function. We identified patients with IGR and low insulin secretion (maximum insulin during OGTT < 200 mU/l) and tested a subgroup using next generation sequencing to identify possible mutations in 103 candidate genes. Results: The total group consisted of 903 children and adolescents with obesity. 4.5% showed impaired fasting glucose, 9.4% impaired glucose tolerance, and 1.2% T2D. Matsuda index and Total AUC (Ins/Glu) showed a hyperbolic relationship. Out of 39 patients with low insulin secretion, we performed genetic testing on 12 patients. We found five monogenetic defects (ABCC8 (n = 3), GCK (n = 1), and GLI2/PTF1A (n = 1)). Conclusion: Using surrogate parameters of beta-cell function and insulin resistance can help identify patients with insulin secretion disorder. A prevalence of 40% mutations of known diabetes genes in the subgroup with low insulin secretion suggests that at least 1.7% of patients with adolescent obesity have monogenic diabetes. A successful molecular genetic diagnosis can help to improve individual therapy.

Heterozygous missense variant in GLI2 impairs human endocrine pancreas development.

Missense variants are the most common type of coding genetic variants. Their functional assessment is fundamental for defining any implication in human diseases and may also uncover genes that are essential for human organ development. Here, we apply CRISPR-Cas9 gene editing on human iPSCs to study a heterozygous missense variant in GLI2 identified in two siblings with early-onset and insulin-dependent diabetes of unknown cause. GLI2 is a primary mediator of the Hedgehog pathway, which regulates pancreatic ß-cell development in mice. However, neither mutations in GLI2 nor Hedgehog dysregulation have been reported as cause or predisposition to diabetes. We establish and study a set of isogenic iPSC lines harbouring the missense variant for their ability to differentiate into pancreatic ß-like cells. Interestingly, iPSCs carrying the missense variant show altered GLI2 transcriptional activity and impaired differentiation of pancreatic progenitors into endocrine cells. RNASeq and network analyses unveil a crosstalk between Hedgehog and WNT pathways, with the dysregulation of non-canonical WNT signaling in pancreatic progenitors carrying the GLI2 missense variant. Collectively, our findings underscore an essential role for GLI2 in human endocrine development and identify a gene variant that may lead to diabetes.

ADAM19 cleaves the PTH receptor and associates with brachydactyly type E.

Brachydactyly type E (BDE), shortened metacarpals, metatarsals, cone-shaped epiphyses, and short stature commonly occurs as a sole phenotype. Parathyroid hormone-like protein (PTHrP) has been shown to be responsible in all forms to date, either directly or indirectly. We used linkage and then whole genome sequencing in a small pedigree, to elucidate BDE and identified a truncated disintegrin-and-metalloproteinase-19 (ADAM19) allele in all affected family members, but not in nonaffected persons. Since we had shown earlier that the extracellular domain of the parathyroid hormone receptor (PTHR1) is subject to an unidentified metalloproteinase cleavage, we tested the hypothesis that ADAM19 is a sheddase for PTHR1. WT ADAM19 cleaved PTHR1, while mutated ADAM-19 did not. We mapped the cleavage site that we verified with mass spectrometry between amino acids 64-65. ADAM-19 cleavage increased Gq and decreased Gs activation. Moreover, perturbed PTHR1 cleavage by ADAM19 increased ß-arrestin2 recruitment, while cAMP accumulation was not altered. We suggest that ADAM19 serves as a regulatory element for PTHR1 and could be responsible for BDE. This sheddase may affect other PTHrP or PTH-related functions.

Mutant Phosphodiesterase 3A Protects From Hypertension-Induced Cardiac Damage.

BACKGROUND: Phosphodiesterase 3A (PDE3A) gain-of-function mutations cause hypertension with brachydactyly (HTNB) and lead to stroke. Increased peripheral vascular resistance, rather than salt retention, is responsible. It is surprising that the few patients with HTNB examined so far did not develop cardiac hypertrophy or heart failure. We hypothesized that, in the heart, PDE3A mutations could be protective. METHODS: We studied new patients. CRISPR-Cas9-engineered rat HTNB models were phenotyped by telemetric blood pressure measurements, echocardiography, microcomputed tomography, RNA-sequencing, and single nuclei RNA-sequencing. Human induced pluripotent stem cells carrying PDE3A mutations were established, differentiated to cardiomyocytes, and analyzed by Ca2+ imaging. We used Förster resonance energy transfer and biochemical assays. RESULTS: We identified a new PDE3A mutation in a family with HTNB. It maps to exon 13 encoding the enzyme's catalytic domain. All hitherto identified HTNB PDE3A mutations cluster in exon 4 encoding a region N-terminally from the catalytic domain of the enzyme. The mutations were recapitulated in rat models. Both exon 4 and 13 mutations led to aberrant phosphorylation, hyperactivity, and increased PDE3A enzyme self-assembly. The left ventricles of our patients with HTNB and the rat models were normal despite preexisting hypertension. A catecholamine challenge elicited cardiac hypertrophy in HTNB rats only to the level of wild-type rats and improved the contractility of the mutant hearts, compared with wild-type rats. The ß-adrenergic system, phosphodiesterase activity, and cAMP levels in the mutant hearts resembled wild-type hearts, whereas phospholamban phosphorylation was decreased in the mutants. In our induced pluripotent stem cell cardiomyocyte models, the PDE3A mutations caused adaptive changes of Ca2+ cycling. RNA-sequencing and single nuclei RNA-sequencing identified differences in mRNA expression between wild-type and mutants, affecting, among others, metabolism and protein folding. CONCLUSIONS: Although in vascular smooth muscle, PDE3A mutations cause hypertension, they confer protection against hypertension-induced cardiac damage in hearts. Nonselective PDE3A inhibition is a final, short-term option in heart failure treatment to increase cardiac cAMP and improve contractility. Our data argue that mimicking the effect of PDE3A mutations in the heart rather than nonselective PDE3 inhibition is cardioprotective in the long term. Our findings could facilitate the search for new treatments to prevent hypertension-induced cardiac damage.

Phosphatidylinositol 4-kinase ß mutations cause nonsyndromic sensorineural deafness and inner ear malformation.

Congenital hearing loss is a common disorder worldwide. Heterogeneous gene variation accounts for approximately 20-25% of such patients. We investigated a five-generation Chinese family with autosomal-dominant nonsyndromic sensorineural hearing loss (SNHL). No wave was detected in the pure-tone audiometry, and the auditory brainstem response was absent in all patients. Computed tomography of the patients, as well as of two sporadic SNHL cases, showed bilateral inner ear anomaly, cochlear maldevelopment, absence of the osseous spiral lamina, and an enlarged vestibular aqueduct. Such findings were absent in nonaffected persons. We used linkage analysis and exome sequencing and uncovered a heterozygous missense mutation in the PI4KB gene (p.Gln121Arg) encoding phosphatidylinositol 4-kinase ß (PI4KB) from the patients in this family. In addition, 3 missense PI4KB (p.Val434Gly, p.Glu667Lys, and p.Met739Arg) mutations were identified in five patients with nonsyndromic SNHL from 57 sporadic cases. No such mutations were present within 600 Chinese controls, the 1000 genome project, gnomAD, or similar databases. Depleting pi4kb mRNA expression in zebrafish caused inner ear abnormalities and audiosensory impairment, mimicking the patient phenotypes. Moreover, overexpression of 4 human missense PI4KB mutant mRNAs in zebrafish embryos resulted in impaired hearing function, suggesting dominant-negative effects. Taken together, our results reveal that PI4KB mutations can cause SNHL and inner ear malformation. PI4KB should be included in neonatal deafness screening.

HDAC4 mutations cause diabetes and induce ß-cell FoxO1 nuclear exclusion.

BACKGROUND: Studying patients with rare Mendelian diabetes has uncovered molecular mechanisms regulating ß-cell pathophysiology. Previous studies have shown that Class IIa histone deacetylases (HDAC4, 5, 7, and 9) modulate mammalian pancreatic endocrine cell function and glucose homeostasis. METHODS: We performed exome sequencing in one adolescent nonautoimmune diabetic patient and detected one de novo predicted disease-causing HDAC4 variant (p.His227Arg). We screened our pediatric diabetes cohort with unknown etiology using Sanger sequencing. In mouse pancreatic ß-cell lines (Min6 and SJ cells), we performed insulin secretion assay and quantitative RT-PCR to measure the ß-cell function transfected with the detected HDAC4 variants and wild type. We carried out immunostaining and Western blot to investigate if the detected HDAC4 variants affect the cellular translocation and acetylation status of Forkhead box protein O1 (FoxO1) in the pancreatic ß-cells. RESULTS: We discovered three HDAC4 mutations (p.His227Arg, p.Asp234Asn, and p.Glu374Lys) in unrelated individuals who had nonautoimmune diabetes with various degrees of ß-cell loss. In mouse pancreatic ß-cell lines, we found that these three HDAC4 mutations decrease insulin secretion, down-regulate ß-cell-specific transcriptional factors, and cause nuclear exclusion of acetylated FoxO1. CONCLUSION: Mutations in HDAC4 disrupt the deacetylation of FoxO1, subsequently decrease the ß-cell function including insulin secretion, resulting in diabetes.

Evaluation of a rare glucose-dependent insulinotropic polypeptide receptor variant in a patient with diabetes.

AIMS: Glucose-dependent insulinotropic polypeptide (GIP) is an incretin hormone that augments insulin secretion in pancreatic ß-cells via its glucose-dependent insulinotropic polypeptide receptor (GIPR). Recent genome-wide association studies identified a single nucleotide variant (SNV) in the GIPR encoding gene (GIPR), rs1800437, that is associated with obesity and insulin resistance. In the present study, we tested whether GIPR variants contribute to obesity and disturb glucose homeostasis or diabetes in specific patient populations. MATERIALS AND METHODS: Exon sequencing of GIPR was performed in 164 children with obesity and insulin resistance and in 80 children with paediatric-onset diabetes of unknown origin. The Study of Health in Pomerania (SHIP) cohort, comprising 8320 adults, was screened for the GIPR variant Arg217Leu. GIPR variants were expressed in COS-7 cells and cAMP production was measured upon stimulation with GIP. Cell surface expression was determined by ELISA. Protein homology modelling of the GIPR variants was performed to extract three-dimensional information of the receptor. RESULTS: A heterozygous missense GIPR variant Arg217Leu (rs200485112) was identified in a patient of Asian ancestry. Functional characterization of Arg217Leu revealed reduced surface expression and signalling after GIP challenge. The homology model of the GIPR structure supports the observed functional relevance of Arg217Leu. CONCLUSION: In vitro functional studies and protein homology modelling indicate a potential relevance of the GIPR variant Arg217Leu in receptor function. The heterozygous variant displayed partial co-segregation with diabetes. Based on these findings, we suggest that GIPR variants may play a role in disturbed glucose homeostasis and may be of clinical relevance in homozygous patients.

PDE3A mutations cause autosomal dominant hypertension with brachydactyly.

Cardiovascular disease is the most common cause of death worldwide, and hypertension is the major risk factor. Mendelian hypertension elucidates mechanisms of blood pressure regulation. Here we report six missense mutations in PDE3A (encoding phosphodiesterase 3A) in six unrelated families with mendelian hypertension and brachydactyly type E (HTNB). The syndrome features brachydactyly type E (BDE), severe salt-independent but age-dependent hypertension, an increased fibroblast growth rate, neurovascular contact at the rostral-ventrolateral medulla, altered baroreflex blood pressure regulation and death from stroke before age 50 years when untreated. In vitro analyses of mesenchymal stem cell-derived vascular smooth muscle cells (VSMCs) and chondrocytes provided insights into molecular pathogenesis. The mutations increased protein kinase A-mediated PDE3A phosphorylation and resulted in gain of function, with increased cAMP-hydrolytic activity and enhanced cell proliferation. Levels of phosphorylated VASP were diminished, and PTHrP levels were dysregulated. We suggest that the identified PDE3A mutations cause the syndrome. VSMC-expressed PDE3A deserves scrutiny as a therapeutic target for the treatment of hypertension.

Recessive mutations in PCBD1 cause a new type of early-onset diabetes.

Mutations in several genes cause nonautoimmune diabetes, but numerous patients still have unclear genetic defects, hampering our understanding of the development of the disease and preventing pathogenesis-oriented treatment. We used whole-genome sequencing with linkage analysis to study a consanguineous family with early-onset antibody-negative diabetes and identified a novel deletion in PCBD1 (pterin-4 α-carbinolamine dehydratase/dimerization cofactor of hepatocyte nuclear factor 1 α), a gene that was recently proposed as a likely cause of diabetes. A subsequent reevaluation of patients with mild neonatal hyperphenylalaninemia due to mutations in PCBD1 from the BIODEF database identified three additional patients who had developed HNF1A-like diabetes in puberty, indicating early ß-cell failure. We found that Pcbd1 is expressed in the developing pancreas of both mouse and Xenopus embryos from early specification onward showing colocalization with insulin. Importantly, a morpholino-mediated knockdown in Xenopus revealed that pcbd1 activity is required for the proper establishment of early pancreatic fate within the endoderm. We provide the first genetic evidence that PCBD1 mutations can cause early-onset nonautoimmune diabetes with features similar to dominantly inherited HNF1A-diabetes. This condition responds to and can be treated with oral drugs instead of insulin, which is important clinical information for these patients. Finally, patients at risk can be detected through a newborn screening for phenylketonuria.

Two novel GATA6 mutations cause childhood-onset diabetes mellitus, pancreas malformation and congenital heart disease.

BACKGROUND: GATA6 mutations are the most frequent cause of pancreatic agenesis and diabetes in human sporadic cases. In families, dominantly inherited mutations show a variable phenotype also in terms of endocrine and exocrine pancreatic disease. We report two novel GATA6 mutations in an independent cohort of 8 children with pancreas aplasia or hypoplasia and diabetes. METHODS: We sequenced GATA6 in 8 children with diabetes and inborn pancreas abnormalities, i.e. hypoplasia or aplasia in which other known candidate genes causing monogenic diabetes and pancreatic defects had been excluded. RESULTS: We found two novel heterozygous GATA6 mutations (c.951_954dup and c.754_904del) in 2 patients with sporadic pancreas hypoplasia, diabetes and severe cardiac defects (common truncus arteriosus and tetralogy of Fallot), but not in the remaining 6 patients. GATA6 mutations in carriers exhibited hypoplastic pancreas with absent head in 1 patient and with increased echogenicity and decreasing exocrine function in the other patient. Additionally, hepatobiliary malformations and brain atrophy were found in 1 patient. CONCLUSION: Our 2 cases with novel GATA6 mutations add more phenotype characteristics of GATA6 haploinsufficiency. In agreement with an increasing number of published cases, the wide phenotypic spectrum of GATA6 diabetes syndrome should draw the attention of both pediatric endocrinologists and geneticists.

Childhood hypertension in autosomal-dominant hypertension with brachydactyly.

Affected individuals with autosomal-dominant hypertension with brachydactyly syndrome develop severe progressive hypertension and, if left untreated, develop stroke by age <50 years. In 1996 we described hypertension and brachydactyly and presented data on adults. We recently revisited this family and performed further studies, focusing particularly on the children in this family. We performed a genome-wide single-nucleotide polymorphism genotyping linkage analysis and confirmed our earlier linkage results. We accrued interesting ancillary data that we attribute to the rearrangements that we described earlier. We performed additional analysis focused on providing clinical criteria for the diagnosis in children and particularly to monitor the onset and to display the age-dependent development of hypertension and brachydactyly. We investigated 30 children; 12 were affected, whereas 18 were not. Brachydactyly with short stature presented as a maturing phenotype, becoming obvious during the prepubertal growth spurt. Stage 2 hypertension was already present in toddlers and increased with age. Thus, blood pressure measurement, rather than brachydactyly, was the most reliable phenotype for the very early diagnosis in children. Importantly, hypertension with brachydactyly occurs worldwide. Once the diagnosis is made, we recommend treatment of all individuals with stage 2 hypertension according to the current European and US guidelines on hypertension in children and adolescents.

Clinical and genetic features in a family with CADASIL and high lipoprotein (a) values.

We present a family with cerebral autosomal dominant arteriopathy with subcortical infarcts and leukoencephalopathy (CADASIL) and elevated lipoprotein(a) [Lp(a)] levels. In addition to neurological examinations, ultrasound of extra- and intracranial arteries, laboratory tests, and cerebral magnetic resonance imaging (MRI), a whole genome screening with mutation analyses was performed. Rather untypical for CADASIL, stenoses of large intracranial arteries were detected in the index patient. All affected subjects lacked a history of migraine, mood disturbances, and cognitive decline despite extensive white matter lesions in two individuals. Furthermore, evidence of early cerebral microangiopathy was demonstrated in three children (age 9, 11 and 13). We were able to explain the mechanism of elevated Lp(a) on the basis of the kringle IV type 2 repetition size. A mutation S118C located in exon 4 of Notch3 was responsible for CADASIL. Elevated Lp(a) might have contributed to the cerebrovascular phenotype in this family.

Signal transduction in CHO cells stably transfected with domain-selective forms of murine ACE.

Membrane-bound human angiotensin-converting enzyme (ACE) has been reported to initiate intracellular signaling after interaction with substrates or inhibitors. Somatic ACE is known to contain two distinct, extracellular catalytic centers. We analyzed the signal transduction mechanisms in cells transfected with different forms of murine ACE (mACE) and investigated whether the two domains are similarly involved in these processes. For this purpose, CHO cells were stably transfected with mACE or with its domain-selective mutants. In addition to these modified cellular models, human umbilical vein endothelial cells were used in this study. Signal transduction molecules such as JNK and c-Jun were analyzed after activation of cells with several ACE substrates and inhibitors. ACE-targeting compounds such as substrates, inhibitors, or even the ACE product angiotensin-II induce in mACE-expressing cells a signal transduction response. These processes are also evoked by partially inactivated forms of mACE and finally result in an enhanced cyclooxygenase-2 transcription. Surprisingly, the membrane-bound ACE activity is also influenced by ACE-targeted interventions. Our data suggest that the two catalytic domains of mACE do not function independently but that the signal transduction is influenced by negative cooperativity of the two catalytic domains. This study underlines that ACE indeed has receptor-like properties which occur in a species-specific manner.

Inversion region for hypertension and brachydactyly on chromosome 12p features multiple splicing and noncoding RNA.

Autosomal-dominant hypertension and brachydactyly (Online Mendelian Inheritance in Man 112410) is a prototype-translational research project. We used interphase fluorescent in situ hybridization and discovered complex rearrangements on chromosome 12p in 5 families but elucidated a common inverted region in the linkage interval. The inversion contains no known gene. However, we found 5 expressed sequence tags in databases. We used 5'- and 3'-Rapid Amplification of cDNA Ends PCR for elongation of the transcripts in phenotype-relevant tissue (fetal aorta, fetal brain, and fetal cartilage). We detected tissue-specific multiple splicing with different exon usage of 32 exons in the gene-related structure. These different transcripts lack both open reading frames and Kozak sequences. In vitro transcription/translation experiments did not identify any peptide-related molecules. We then performed quantitative RT-PCR to test for differential expression of the various spliced transcripts in the total fibroblast RNA of affected and nonaffected Turkish family members. Skin fibroblasts of affected individuals have a significantly increased proliferation rate compared with nonaffected individuals. Ten of 12 spliced exon combinations representing all of the spliced variants do not show a significantly different RNA expression rate. However, 2 RT-PCR products are exclusively expressed in nonaffected individuals. Both reverse transcription amplicons share 1 exon. This result is surprising because of the autosomal-dominant mode of inheritance of the trait. RNA secondary prediction of this single exon results in a stable stem-loop structure known to be essential for microRNA processing. We are pursuing the possibility of microRNA expression in affected patients that leads to complete down regulation of a spliced transcript.

Mutations in the gene encoding the 3'-5' DNA exonuclease TREX1 are associated with systemic lupus erythematosus.

TREX1 acts in concert with the SET complex in granzyme A-mediated apoptosis, and mutations in TREX1 cause Aicardi-Goutières syndrome and familial chilblain lupus. Here, we report monoallelic frameshift or missense mutations and one 3' UTR variant of TREX1 present in 9/417 individuals with systemic lupus erythematosus but absent in 1,712 controls (P = 4.1 x 10(-7)). We demonstrate that two mutant TREX1 alleles alter subcellular targeting. Our findings implicate TREX1 in the pathogenesis of SLE.

Quantitative genetic basis of arterial phenotypes in the Brown Norway rat.

The Brown Norway (BN) rat presents several genetically determined arterial phenotypes of interest, i.e., ruptures of the internal elastic lamina (RIEL) in the abdominal aorta (AA), iliac (IAs), and renal arteries, aortic elastin deficit and higher frequency of persistent ductus arteriosus (PDA) than other strains. We investigated the genetic basis of these phenotypes. We established a backcross between BN and the LOU reference strain and performed a genome-wide scan on 104 males and 105 females with 193 microsatellite markers followed by linkage analysis. RIEL in AA and IAs showed highly significant linkage to a locus on chromosome 5 and suggestive linkage to a locus on chromosome 10, which is syntenic to one linked to a syndrome of thoracic aortic aneurysms with PDA in humans. In contrast, renal artery RIEL mapped to a chromosome 3 locus and thoracic aortic elastic content to two loci on chromosome 2. PDA was significantly linked to two different quantitative trait loci (QTL) on chromosomes 8 and 9. This is the first study in rats to identify genetic loci for PDA. We identified 21 candidate genes by functional relevance or integration of our mapping data with global expression analysis. Sequencing these genes identified 47 single nucleotide polymorphisms, but no functionally relevant amino acid changes. By expression analysis, myosin heavy chain 10, nonmuscle, in the chromosome 10 QTL, emerged as a candidate for RIEL in AA and IAs. Furthermore, production of a congenic line for the chromosome 5 QTL proved implication of this locus in RIEL formation.

Familial chilblain lupus, a monogenic form of cutaneous lupus erythematosus, maps to chromosome 3p.

Systemic lupus erythematosus is a prototypic autoimmune disease. Apart from rare monogenic deficiencies of complement factors, where lupuslike disease may occur in association with other autoimmune diseases or high susceptibility to bacterial infections, its etiology is multifactorial in nature. Cutaneous findings are a hallmark of the disease and manifest either alone or in association with internal-organ disease. We describe a novel genodermatosis characterized by painful bluish-red inflammatory papular or nodular lesions in acral locations such as fingers, toes, nose, cheeks, and ears. The lesions sometimes appear plaquelike and tend to ulcerate. Manifestation usually begins in early childhood and is precipitated by cold and wet exposure. Apart from arthralgias, there is no evidence for internal-organ disease or an increased susceptibility to infection. Histological findings include a deep inflammatory infiltrate with perivascular distribution and granular deposits of immunoglobulins and complement along the basement membrane. Some affected individuals show antinuclear antibodies or immune complex formation, whereas cryoglobulins or cold agglutinins are absent. Thus, the findings are consistent with chilblain lupus, a rare form of cutaneous lupus erythematosus. Investigation of a large German kindred with 18 affected members suggests a highly penetrant trait with autosomal dominant inheritance. By single-nucleotide-polymorphism-based genomewide linkage analysis, the locus was mapped to chromosome 3p. Haplotype analysis defined the locus to a 13.8-cM interval with a LOD score of 5.04. This is the first description of a monogenic form of cutaneous lupus erythematosus. Identification of the gene responsible for familial chilblain lupus may shed light on the pathogenesis of common forms of connective-tissue disease such as systemic lupus erythematosus.

Molecular genetics of human hypertension.

EH (essential hypertension) is a major public health problem in many countries due to its high prevalence and its association with coronary heart disease, stroke, renal disease, peripheral vascular disease and other disorders. Epidemiological studies have demonstrated that EH is heritable. Owing to the fact that blood pressure is controlled by cardiac output and total peripheral resistance, many molecular pathways are believed to be involved in the disease. In this review, recent genetic studies investigating the molecular basis of EH, including different molecular pathways, will be highlighted.

Genome-wide linkage reveals a locus for human essential (primary) hypertension on chromosome 12p.

Essential (primary) hypertension is an important risk factor for cardiovascular morbidity and mortality. Blood pressure is largely heritable; however, the genetic factors contributing to essential hypertension are mostly unknown. We examined a large Chinese kindred (n=387) and selected a subset of 94 individuals for genotyping. An additional 32 Chinese nuclear families with essential hypertension were also recruited. Genome-wide parametric linkage analysis identified a new locus for primary hypertension on chromosome 12p (parametric LOD score 3.44). This locus overlaps with the assigned locus that causes severe autosomal-dominant hypertension and brachydactyly, the only form of monogenic hypertension known to date that resembles primary hypertension. We suggest that this genomic region, spanning 18 annotated genes, will be of great relevance in elucidating new mechanisms for primary hypertension.